Gender identity and self-esteem of boys growing up without a father

Abstract

A consequence of the currently high divorce rate is that lots of children grow up without their father. In this article the question of whether such fatherless children develop a less masculine gender identity and a more negative evaluation of self-image (lower self-esteem) is explored. The focus in this article is exclusively on male children. Based on available research, it is concluded that father-absent boys show a more feminine or less masculine gender identity and report lower self-esteem than father-present boys. Future research should control for confounds such as SES and family unhappiness, in order to make sure that it is actually the father absence that causes the developmental outcomes that have been obtained.